1 The introduction of new technology on board
merchant ships has been increasing at an accelerated rate. The effectiveness
of crews to use the technology safely and to best effect requires
familiarity with the equipment and training as recognised in the STCW Convention. There are a number of aspects
to be considered with respect to how seafarers interact with the technology
and also some issues to be considered when assessing the training
needs for the seafarers who use such technology.
Issues to consider for the training of seafarers
2 Although performance standards exist, many bridge
systems, engineering consoles and cargo systems vary greatly in their
user interface (layout of controls, displays and symbology) and functionality
beyond what is required as a minimum (added features requiring extra
controls, menu options or customised symbology). The result of non-standardized
controls and displays is an increase in the amount of training needed
to make a seafarer familiar with, and effective in, the use of the
equipment.
3 Increased training to facilitate the use of
these systems however is not always achievable, such as when a pilot
boards a ship or a seafarer joins a ship just prior to departure,
or possible to provide, such as multiple systems in training centres.
There are clear dangers for seafarers which find that the systems
they are required to use at sea are very different from those on which
they have received training ashore.
4 One solution is to familiarise seafarers with
equipment by training them using simulators (either desk top or full
mission) prior to them joining their ships. This is made far more
efficient where manufacturers provide assistance in developing the
training tools.
5 The solution is a common interface with standard
symbology for common operations and where systems are capable of being
customised into non-standard displays, the standard display should
be able to be reverted to through a single and obvious control feature.
Challenges in training for technology
6 There are many challenges encountered when assessing
the training needs for seafarers in using technology-based systems
on board, some are cultural and others are practical, but these issues
need to be addressed if seafarers are to be able to utilize technology-based
systems on board to make good decisions.
7 In many cases, crews of new ships or ships retrofitted
with new equipment may be trained ashore in accordance with a manufacturer's
recommendation or model course criteria, but those initial crews may
be required to train their reliefs, in situ, in the proper
use of the equipment. This procedure is often known as cascade training.
This leads to a situation where the initial crew might receive 3-5
days of specialist training for a system, but are required to pass
this knowledge on to other watchkeepers during a brief turn-round
period in port. Additional aids, such as Computer Based Training (CBT)
modules, used either aboard or prior to joining a ship, can improve
the situation. Technical manuals can however be poor training tools.
8 One issue of note for trainers is the realization
that many young watchkeepers have a culture of using information technology
(home computers, Internet, video games etc.) and that during times
of stress revert to electronic displays for their primary decision
support systems. Inexperienced seafarers may seek more data and information
in stressful situations, often confusing themselves further. Problems
can also develop when novice navigators are trained on desktop simulators
which do not have the advantage of a simulated ”window”
for visual observation. This may reinforce the habit of constant reliance
on a digital display for situational awareness during actual operations.
9 Care must be exercised to ensure that training
on new technology centres on selection of the most appropriate technology
and using it effectively to assist the decision-making process. Examples
include officers who are very proficient in operating Integrated Navigation
Systems who continue to use the system for decision support when other
means are more appropriate, such as in close quarters situations,
or where various pilotage techniques are more appropriate.
10 The information supplied by navigation systems
such as ECDIS and AIS can add value and improve operations when used
by well-trained officers who understand how to manage and prioritise
the information, however the same information provided to an officer
without these skills can lead to information overload and poor decision-making.
Taking the human element into account when introducing
new technology
11 Research has shown that automation has qualitative
consequences for human work and safety and does not simply replace
human work with machine work. Automation changes the task it was meant
to support; it creates new error pathways, shifts the consequence
of error further into the future and may delay opportunities for error
detection and recovery. Automation creates new kinds of knowledge
demands. Watchkeepers must have a working knowledge of the functions
of the automation in different situations, and know how to co-ordinate
their activities with the automated system's activities. This manifests
itself in situations whereby officers do not understand weaknesses
or limitations of systems they rely on. Training in this respect will
become more important as systems become more integrated and sophisticated.
12 It has been shown that operators will monitor
less effectively when automation is installed, and even more so if
the automation has been operating acceptably for a long period. There
is also evidence that the more robust a system is in its design to
prevent human intervention, the more difficult it is to know about
and thus control what is going on inside its boundaries. Under these
circumstances, the human operator has no means of checking the accuracy
or fidelity of instrument readouts and thus may well ignore relevant
information and revert to heuristic decision-making.
13 It has been observed that sophisticated systems
used by well-trained seafarers with a good level of underpinning knowledge
use the systems to make better decisions. However, the same level
of sophistication made available to seafarers with poorer understanding
of the basic principles of navigation and collision avoidance often
creates a more hazardous environment for decision-making. Information
technology aboard ships has increased the level of information, thus
increasing the task of managing the information. The information on
the bridge of a ship can include information pertaining to navigation,
collision avoidance, communication, cargo, engineering, ship management,
ship safety and security. It is also not uncommon for in excess of
200 alarms to be installed on a ship's bridge. For a single watchkeeping
officer to monitor this level of information properly, training in
information management is essential. Information overload is a real
hazard.
14 The introduction of new technology on board
merchant ships has the potential to improve the efficiency and effectiveness
of watchkeeping and to improve the safety of operations. However,
it must be recognized that this technology brings with it the inherent
training requirements needed to be able to physically operate the
new systems and also the training needed to allow seafarers to use
the systems to make better decisions. Standardization of designs is
necessary to create an environment where seafarers and pilots, working
within the natural constraints of their trades, can operate the systems
safely and effectively.
15 Training for the use of such systems should
take into account the special human element issues associated with
the human machine interface, the recognition that automation changes
a task it was meant to support and that operators will monitor less
effectively when automation is installed.