(Note: More detailed descriptions of the ecological, socio-economic and
cultural, scientific and educational criteria are contained in paragraphs 17 to 80 of
document MEPC 68/10/1.)
1 Ecological criteria
Uniqueness or rarity
1.1 The Coral Sea is considered one of the most distinctive and undisturbed
natural systems in the world and is internationally recognized for its rich
biodiversity, unique species and important heritage values.
1.2 In the area of the Coral Sea to be covered by the PSSA, three large-scale
unique ecological features that support distinct or important ecological communities at
a regional scale are present. The Queensland and Marion Plateaux, together support over
20 coral reefs and cays, which provide complex habitats with diverse and abundant
invertebrate and fish communities. Similarly, the northernmost parts of the Tasmantid
Seamount Chain contain a diverse range of habitats, including deep-water sponge gardens
and near-pristine tropical coral reef systems. Collectively these are known to be
biological hot-spots, with significant species diversity.
1.3 Over millennia, the geological and oceanographic history of the region
and its warm and cool current patterns have prevented the migration of species,
prompting the development of flora and fauna that evolved, adapted and spread in
isolation. Localized currents can act as a barrier to dispersal; as a result the area
has high levels of species endemism.
1.4 The area contains some of the world's most unique and globally
significant marine species, such as the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys
coriacea), humphead Maori wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) and nautilus
(Nautilus pompilius).
1.5 The Coral Sea provides migratory corridors for cetaceans, sharks, fish,
turtles and seabirds, many of which are of conservation concern. Successive research
efforts have highlighted the significance of the Coral Sea in patterns of dispersal,
whereby the reefs provide a series of dispersal stepping-stones from the western Pacific
towards the GBR.
1.6 Deep, cold water troughs and abyssal basins are habitat for an array of
benthic species, many of which are a protected matter under Australia’s Environment
Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) or international
agreement or are unique to the area, including 18 endemic species of deep-water sharks,
rays and chimaera fish.
1.7 The remoteness and challenging environment of the area means much of its
biodiversity remains undescribed and new species found nowhere else are routinely
discovered. Surveys in the deeper reef habitats at Osprey Reef have revealed prehistoric
six-gilled sharks, giant oil fish and many crustaceans and unidentified fish at depths
of 1400 metres. A unique, dwarf speciation of Nautilus pompilius was also
identified on Osprey Reef. This species evolved isolated from nautilus in the nearby
Coral Sea and GBR, and is a reflection of the endemic nature of ecosystems within the
area.
1.8 The north-western Coral Sea hosts the only confirmed spawning aggregation of black
marlin (Makaira indica) in the world. This species migrates throughout the
Pacific Ocean, but only uses the Coral Sea to spawn.
1.9 The few detailed surveys undertaken have shown that as many as 40% of the
invertebrates inhabiting seamounts in the area are new to science while up to 34% of the
species may be endemic. Scientists expect that research into the lesser known, deeper
areas of the region will uncover many new species.
Critical habitat
1.10 The area contains outstanding examples of reef communities and a diverse array of
isolated sandy cays, islands, deep-sea plains, seamounts and canyons. Collectively,
these areas provide foraging, breeding and nesting grounds for a rich array of marine
species, including 341 species that are recognized for their conservation significance
under the EPBC Act and under international agreements. This includes 26 species of
cetaceans, 219 species of corals, 21 species of fish, 46 species of sharks and rays,
five species of marine turtles and 24 species of birds. Many of these species are listed
as threatened or migratory species, or both, and, whilst over half of these species show
declining population trends worldwide, many are still found at healthy levels in the
Coral Sea.
Dependency
1.11 The reefs of Coral Sea provide stepping-stones for the dispersal of species between
the GBR and the greater Pacific Ocean region. Maintaining the overall integrity and
resilience of these reefs is therefore necessary to ensure that they can function
effectively as stepping-stone habitats.
1.12 The Coral Sea also provides migratory corridors for cetaceans, sharks, fish, turtles
and seabirds, many of which are of conservation concern. There are likely to be further
important areas for feeding, breeding, migrating and resting that have yet to be clearly
identified, and which may act as critical habitat for many species.
1.13 Thousands of species rely on the ecosystem processes within the Coral Sea region to
provide opportunities for foraging, breeding and migration. These processes are largely
driven by the availability of energy within the system, which in turn is dependent upon
the unique interactions between the region's oceanographic and topographic features.
1.14 Localized turbulence in the lee of reefs, islands and seamounts influences
biological communities by creating patches of high to intermediate productivity in the
nutrient-poor open-water environment. These sites of enhanced productivity are important
aggregators for a range of pelagic species including small fish, mid-trophic predatory
fish and large predators. They are also known to attract a range of species of
conservation concern including marine turtles, marine mammals and seabirds.
1.15 Cays in the area offer important habitat for seabirds to roost and nest, and turtles
to lay eggs above the high tide mark. Seabirds provide the main source of energy on
these cays, through their nutrient-rich guano, eggs and carrion, which support food webs
of terrestrial and intertidal invertebrates and over time facilitate the development of
soil and organic matter, which in turn provides habitat for more complex plant
communities.
1.16 The species assemblage and trophic structure of the region relies on the highly
interlinked web of local oceanographic patterns, topography and energy inputs. An impact
on any one of these can disrupt this web, destabilizing ecosystem processes and the
species that rely on them.
Representativeness
1.17 The reefs, cays and herbivorous fish of the Queensland and Marion Plateaux and the
northern extent of the Tasmantid Seamount Chain highlight the biological significance
and ecological value of the region.
1.18 The Queensland and Marion Plateaux are considered important for aggregations of
marine life and the high levels of biodiversity they support. The reefs and islands of
these plateaux are approximately 200–400 kilometres from the coast and provide for
diverse and abundant invertebrate (e.g. sea cucumber) and fish communities.
1.19 These reefs of the Queensland and Marion Plateaux are known for their particularly
high densities of shark species, and Osprey Reef in particular is also recognized for
its populations of the iconic humphead Maori wrasse and nautilus. The lagoons of these
reefs are important nursery sites for sharks and predatory fish, while the island areas
support critical nesting sites for the green turtle and a range of seabird species. The
plateaux also abut two significant deep-water regions: the Queensland Trough, which
separates the Queensland Plateau from the GBR, and the Townsville Trough, which
separates the two plateaux from each other. These troughs contain canyons and gullies
that are likely to support unique deep-water ecosystems.
Diversity
1.20 The reef systems in the Coral Sea are dominated by spectacular sponge gardens, and
support high biodiversity. Approximately 745 species of molluscs (shellfish, squid and
octopus) have been found, including several that are considered rare. Six hundred and
twenty eight species of fish are known to occur in the Coral Sea. The small islets and
cays of the Coral Sea are important nesting places for many species of seabirds.
1.21 Reefs in the area provide a habitat mosaic for diverse and abundant invertebrate and
fish communities. A diversity of hard and soft corals, sponge gardens, crustaceans and
molluscs are found in the area, as well as a distinct Coral Sea reef fish community that
includes many unique species.
1.22 Significant variation in water depth and sea floor features are contributing factors
to the high levels of species diversity in the area. Sections of the continental shelf
have a mosaic of rocky reefs and soft sediments and support species from a diverse range
of taxonomic groups. The extensive seamount systems of the Coral Sea contain a large
variety of sponges, corals, gorgonians, sea squirts and crinoids, the latter of which
can grow unusually large and are frequently very long-lived, often exceeding several
hundred years.
1.23 Abyssal regions are yet to be fully explored, but there is evidence of biologically
important systems likely to contain a vast reservoir of undiscovered species.
Productivity
1.24 The pelagic environment of the area is akin to a vast desert with small oases of
biodiversity and productivity. These areas of primary productivity influence the spread
of algae, one of the area's most abundant and diverse life forms, covering a greater
region than corals and forming an important part of the food chain. Areas with a high
biomass of algae increase planktonic activity and create high levels of prey abundance,
attracting aggregations of higher order herbivorous and apex predator species. These
localized productivity hot spots in an otherwise nutrient-poor environment provide
habitat, migration and dispersal corridors for many iconic and endangered species.
1.25 Marine species and seabirds can journey hundreds or even thousands of kilometres to
breed in the Coral Sea, or to travel through en route to breeding areas beyond the
region. Areas of high productivity such as the seamounts are therefore critical
"stepping stones" within the barren open ocean and are important aggregators for a range
of species including lantern fish, albacore tuna, billfish and sharks. These species
rely on foraging opportunities supplied by productivity hot spots in the Coral Sea to
sustain them on their journey. Large marine mammals journey many kilometres to breed in
the Reserve, or to travel through en route to breeding areas.
1.26 It is also thought that the organic particulates contained in nutrient-rich
intrusions in the area are responsible for the settlement and sustained growth of coral
reef ecosystems, which have the highest gross primary productivity of all ocean
ecosystems. These waters carry organic matter into the region where they contribute
significantly to the overall productivity of the system.
Spawning and breeding grounds
1.27 The area contains critical habitat features used by numerous species to spawn and
breed and which are therefore essential for their survival.
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.1 The waters over the Queensland and Townsville Troughs appear important for
attracting aggregations of large pelagic species, either to feed or spawn.
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.2 Extensive seabird rookeries within the small islets and cays of the area
are of global and national importance.
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.3 The area is a major feeding and breeding location for six of the world's
seven species of sea turtles, all of which are listed on the IUCN Red List
of Threatened Species.
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.4 Particularly sheltered regions, such as lagoons, are thought to be
important nursery sites for sharks and predatory fish, while other species,
such as the dwarf minke whale, the hawksbill and leatherback turtles and the
endangered Herald petrel, forage in these calmer areas.
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.5 The northern extension of the Tasmantid Seamount Chain, where the
seamounts extend to the surface and are capped by islands and reefs, provide
feeding and breeding grounds for open ocean species including billfish,
marine turtles and marine mammals.
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.6 Each year from September to December, black marlin aggregate in the area
to spawn. This is the only known spawning location for black marlin in the
world.
Naturalness
1.28 The Coral Sea is considered one of the most distinctive and undisturbed natural
systems in the world.
1.29 The area is not directly threatened by land-based sources of pollution and has
relatively low levels of fishing. It is one of the world's last tropical oceanic regions
containing high biodiversity coral reefs that are virtually pristine, and where large
populations of pelagic predators have not been severely depleted. The topography of the
area has also contributed to its pristine nature, with recent surveys identifying
deep-sea ecosystems which have remained largely unchanged for millions of years.
1.30 The Coringa Cays and Lihou Islets contain important bird and turtle nesting sites
that are almost totally free from anthropogenic disturbances such as lighting, beach
use, pollution, feral animals, and boat traffic compared to nesting sites throughout the
GBR. These areas, therefore, are reference sites to determine the impacts of such
disturbances on breeding success within the populations.
Integrity
1.31 The extension area covers a large area, and encompasses parts of six provincial
bioregions identified in the Integrated Marine and Coastal Regionalisation of Australia
Version 4.0 (IMCRA v.4.0). These bioregions contain a wide variety of interconnected
habitats, and also provide important "stepping-stone" links between the GBR and the
wider Pacific Ocean.
1.32 The integrity of the area is in part due to its remote nature, with the nearest
point to a mainland coast over 60 kilometres away, and the furthest point 1100
kilometres.
1.33 The area therefore demonstrates the characteristics of an isolated, effectively
self-sustaining ecological unit, as evidenced by the high proportion of endemism both
within the region, and between individual reef communities.
Fragility
1.34 Although the Coral Sea contains a number of critical shallow reef and terrestrial
habitats, these represent less than 1% of the total area. Their small size, isolation
from each other and high exposure to cyclones and storms make them more vulnerable to
catastrophic impacts of natural disturbances than the contiguous reef systems of the
GBR. These precarious conditions increase the area's ecological fragility and the risk
of local extinctions. A high proportion of pelagic and deep-water species are
particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts.
1.35 While the isolation of the area's ecosystems has ensured a great deal of diversity
and endemicity between communities and populations, it also means these systems can be
particularly fragile and susceptible to external factors with potentially catastrophic,
long-term cascade effects.
1.36 The area's deep-sea organisms are generally slow growing, long-lived,
late-reproducing species with few offspring, and as a result can take a significant
amount of time to rebuild populations. The cold coral reef systems take thousands of
years to develop even in areas with stable conditions. They are fragile and extremely
susceptible to damage as recovery rates are immensely slow.
Bio-geographic importance
1.37 A number of biologically important areas are located within, or intersect with the
area:
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.1 Seasonal migration routes and feeding sites for cetaceans including the
humpback whale occur throughout the region. The humpback whale is also known
to breed and calve in the area.
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.2 Migration routes and foraging and feeding sites for 13 species of seabird
listed under the EPBC Act as threatened, endangered and/or migratory are
located in the area.
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.3 The green turtle breeds in the area, with the Coringa-Herald-Lihou area
particularly important for nesting and inter-nesting activities.
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.4 In spring and summer, whale sharks aggregate to feed around Bougainville
Reef and white sharks use the south west Coral Sea, adjacent to the Swain
Reefs, as they move between nursery areas and for opportunistic feeding.
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.5 The minimal impacts on the area and its relative lack of disturbance mean
that its various ecosystems provide a representation of what the geographic
distribution of organisms would naturally resemble in comparable, but more
highly impacted marine ecosystems around the world.
2 Social, cultural and economic criteria
Social or economic dependency
2.1 Commercial fisheries have a relatively small presence in the south west Coral Sea
compared to other marine regions around Australia. Commonwealth and Queensland state
managed fisheries occur in the area, including line, hand collection, trawl, purse
seine, trap and net fisheries.
2.2 Almost all tourism activities that occur in the south west Coral Sea are nature-based
and reliant on an intact Coral Sea ecosystem. They include charter fishing, snorkelling,
scuba diving, whale watching and cruising.
2.3 Known scuba diving and snorkelling hotspots in the Coral Sea region include the
Osprey and Shark Reefs, for their significant populations of shark. These activities
also occur in the Coringa Islets, Herald Cays and at Lihou Reef, although the extreme
isolation of these locations means that they are not often visited. They also take place
off other islands and shallow water seafloor features in the Coral Sea region, albeit on
a limited basis.
2.4 Scuba diving and snorkelling are predominantly eco-tourism or heritage-based tourism
activities with participants preferring locations that offer near-pristine marine
environments or dive wrecks of interest. Some commercial and educational organizations
offer science-based tourism opportunities where divers and snorkelers participate in
experiments or surveys. Cruise ships also frequent the region, some regularly visiting
Willis Island.
Cultural heritage
2.5 Like the GBR and Torres Strait, the Coral Sea is also of indigenous cultural and
social significance to island and coastal communities. Many Aboriginal and Torres Strait
island people undertake traditional use of marine resource activities to provide
traditional food, practice their living maritime culture and to educate younger
generations about traditional and cultural rules and protocols.
2.6 The area contains a large number of historic shipwrecks, including the wrecks of the
Cato and HMS Porpoise, which are located in protected zones
established under Australia's Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976. The region was
significant in the Battle of the Coral Sea during World War II.
3 Scientific and educational criteria
Research
3.1 Given the scale and location of the proposed extension area to the PSSA, large-scale
oceanographic features are well known and documented. However, there is a lack of
knowledge of finer-scale hydrodynamics linking habitats within the Coral Sea. Further,
the potential impacts of climate change on the Coral Sea are yet to be understood.
3.2 In spite of the relatively few detailed studies on the area, it remains one of high
scientific interest. The remote location of the area, and its reputation as one of the
most distinctive and undisturbed natural systems in the world, offers researchers a rare
opportunity to study a biota over an area of significant scale that has not been
markedly impacted by fishing and which is likely to remain undisturbed.
3.3 Domestic and international research institutions are actively undertaking research in
the area. In addition to research institutions, tourist operators and volunteer
organisations maintain active monitoring programs.
3.4 The occupied meteorological facility on Willis Island has been providing data to
Bureau of Meteorology scientists and others since 1921. Automatic weather stations are
located on Bougainville Reef, Cato Island, Flinders Reef (Flinders Coral Cay), Frederick
Reef, Holmes Reef, Lihou Reef (Turtle Islet), Marion Reef and Moore Reef. Observations
from Willis Island and the automatic weather stations are important for climate analysis
and numerical weather prediction models, for fine-tuning forecasts and warnings, and are
particularly important for early warning of tropical cyclones.
Baseline for monitoring studies
3.5 The extension area to the PSSA is remote and considered a relatively undisturbed
natural system. Although its location has meant that detailed studies of the area are
limited, the Coral Sea is a known habitat for many protected species, and spawning
aggregations and nesting locations have been identified. The area also provides
migratory corridors for a variety of important species, and as such provides suitable
baseline conditions for future monitoring studies.